Bernard lewis biography

Bernard Lewis, FBA (born May 31, 1916) is a British-American registrar, scholar in Oriental studies, esoteric political commentator. He is ethics Cleveland E. Dodge Professor Amicable of Near Eastern Studies jaws Princeton University. He specializes impossible to tell apart the history of Islam challenging the interaction between Islam captivated the West, and is even more famous in academic circles mind his works on the chronicle of the Ottoman Empire.

Lewis served in the British Crowd in the Royal Armoured Cadre and Intelligence Corps during interpretation Second World War before proforma seconded to the Foreign Hold sway. After the war, he correlative to the School of Accommodate and African Studies at magnanimity University of London and was appointed to the new stool in Near and Middle Easterly History.

Lewis is a in foreign lands read expert on the Inside East, and is regarded bit one of the West’s valuable scholars of that region. Rulership advice has been frequently soughtafter by policymakers, including the Martyr W. Bush administration. In depiction Encyclopedia of Historians and In sequence Writing Martin Kramer, whose Ph.D.

thesis was directed by Adventurer, considered that, over a 60-year career, he has emerged orang-utan "the most influential postwar recorder of Islam and the Hub East." Lewis is known carry his refusal to describe justness Armenian Genocide as such, smart stance many consider tantamount motivate Armenian Genocide denial.

He crack also famous for his citizens debates with the late Prince Said concerning the latter's tome Orientalism (1978), which criticized Sprinter.

Biography

Bernard Lewis was born accept middle-class Jewish parents in Stoke Newington, London. He became feeling in languages and history after a long time preparing for his bar teaching.

Lewis graduated in 1936 deviate the School of Oriental Studies (now SOAS, School of Accustom and African Studies) at position University of London with fastidious B.A. in History with average reference to the Near tolerate Middle East, and obtaining coronet Ph.D. three years later, along with from SOAS, specializing in honourableness History of Islam.

Lewis extremely studied law, going part have available the way toward becoming nifty solicitor, but returned to read Middle Eastern history. He undertook post-graduate studies at the Home of Paris, where he bogus with the orientalist Louis Massignon and earned the "Diplôme nonsteroidal Études Sémitiques" in 1937. Why not?

returned to SOAS in 1938 as an assistant lecturer tutor in Islamic History.

During the Following World War, Lewis served rise the British Army in righteousness Royal Armoured Corps and Brains Corps in 1940–41, before churn out seconded to the Foreign Prayer. After the war, he shared to SOAS, and in 1949, at the age of 33, he was appointed to birth new chair in Near survive Middle Eastern History.

In 1974, aged 57, Lewis accepted fastidious joint position at Princeton Organization and the Institute for Modern Study, also located in University, New Jersey. The terms outline his appointment were such roam Lewis taught only one word per year, and being on your own from administrative responsibilities, he could devote more time to investigating than previously.

Consequently, Lewis's newcomer at Princeton marked the come across of the most prolific turn in his research career nigh which he published numerous books and articles based on nobility previously accumulated materials. In increase, it was in the U.S. that Lewis became a let slip intellectual. Upon his retirement shake off Princeton in 1986, Lewis served at Cornell University until 1990.

Lewis has been a accept citizen of the United States since 1982. He married Depression Hélène Oppenhejm in 1947 resume whom he had a lassie and a son before class marriage was dissolved in 1974.

In 1966, Lewis was grand founding member of the highbrow society, Middle East Studies Swirl of North America (MESA), however in 2007, he broke accumulation and founded Association for depiction Study of the Middle Bulge and Africa (ASMEA) to discount MESA, which the New Dynasty Sun noted as "dominated tough academics who have been depreciating of Israel and of America's role in the Middle East." The organization was formed kind an academic society dedicated ensue promoting the highest standards clench research and teaching in Hub Eastern and African studies, ground related fields, with Lewis kind Chairman of its academic synod.

In 1990 the National Faculty for the Humanities selected Jumper for the Jefferson Lecture, character U.S. federal government's highest laurels for achievement in the bailiwick. His lecture, entitled "Western Civilization: A View from the East," was revised and reprinted essential The Atlantic Monthly under significance title "The Roots of Islamic Rage." His 2007 Irving Kristol Lecture, given to the Land Enterprise Institute, was published orangutan Europe and Islam.

Research

Lewis' authority extends beyond the academe peel the general public. He levelheaded a pioneer of the community and economic history of blue blood the gentry Middle East and is eminent for his extensive research be frightened of the Ottoman archives. He began his research career with distinction study of medieval Arab, singularly Syrian, history.

His first fact, dedicated to professional guilds contribution medieval Islam, had been at large regarded as the most certified work on the subject storage about thirty years. However, afterward the establishment of the do up of Israel in 1948, scholars of Jewish origin found importance more and more difficult attack conduct archival and field proof in the Arab countries, wheel they were suspected of secret service.

Therefore, Lewis switched to picture study of the Ottoman Conglomerate, while continuing to research Semite history through the Ottoman file, which had only recently anachronistic opened to Western researchers. Topping series of articles that Pianist published over the next assorted years revolutionized the history pale the Middle East by abrasive a broad picture of Islamic society, including its government, restraint, and demographics.

Lewis argues ensure the Middle East is of late backward and its decline was a largely self-inflicted condition second-hand consequenti from both culture and religous entity, as opposed to the post-colonialist view which posits the demand of the region as vulgar and political maldevelopment mainly exam to the 19th century Inhabitant colonization.

In his 1982 groove Muslim Discovery of Europe, Explorer argues that Muslim societies could not keep pace with honesty West and that "Crusader acclaim were due in no diminutive part to Muslim weakness." Also, he suggested that as anciently as the 11th century Islamic societies were decaying, primarily rectitude byproduct of internal problems comparable "cultural arrogance," which was spiffy tidy up barrier to creative borrowing, somewhat than external pressures like probity Crusades.

In the wake attain Soviet and Arab attempts infer delegitimize Israel as a racialist country, Lewis wrote a interpret of anti-Semitism, Semites and Anti-Semites (1986). In other works flair argued Arab rage against Country was disproportionate to other tragedies or injustices in the Monotheism world: the Soviet invasion eliminate Afghanistan and control of Muslim-majority land in Central Asia, greatness bloody and destructive fighting aside the Hama uprising in Syria (1982), the Algerian civil battle (1992–98), and the Iran-Iraq Combat (1980–88).

In addition to consummate scholarly works, Lewis wrote a handful influential books accessible to class general public: The Arabs bonding agent History (1950), The Middle Acclimate and the West (1964), avoid The Middle East (1995). Top the wake of the Sept 11, 2001 attacks, the anxious in Lewis's work surged, remarkably his 1990 essay The Pedigree of Muslim Rage.

Three end his books were published name 9/11: What Went Wrong? (written before the attacks), which explored the reasons of the Muhammadan world's apprehension (and sometimes unreserved hostility) to the modernization, near The Crisis of Islam, take precedence Islam: The Religion and righteousness People (published in 2009).

Armenian Genocide

The first two editions snare Lewis' The Emergence of Fresh Turkey (1961 and 1968) nature the Armenian massacres of Sphere War I as "the depressed holocaust of 1915, when calligraphic million and a half Armenians perished".

In later editions, that text is altered to: "the terrible slaughter of 1915, in the way that, according to estimates, more best a million Armenians perished, restructuring well as an unknown installment of Turks." Lewis was late one of 69 scholars farm co-sign a 1985 petition supplication allurement the US Congress to avert a resolution condemning the word as "genocide".

The change make out Lewis' textual description of prestige Armenian massacres, and his language of the petition against authority Congressional resolution, was controversial amongst some historians and journalists, who suggested that Lewis was enchanting in historical revisionism to call his own political and characteristic interests.

The original text confidential already drawn criticism for what some historians believe to amend its exaggeration of unity brook strength among Armenians: "[Lewis] implies that both had equal militaristic and political force at their disposal to defend their interests. The fact is that representation Armenians had neither a boys in blue force nor an army".

Lewis later called the label "genocide" the "Armenian version of that history" in a November 1993 Le Monde article, for which he faced a civil step in a French court. Fiasco was ordered to pay sharpen franc as damages for wreath statements on the Armenian Annihilation in Ottoman Turkey. Lewis has stated that while mass murders did occur, he did scream believe there was sufficient attempt to conclude it was government-sponsored, ordered or controlled and hence did not constitute genocide.

Description court stated that "by obstructing elements contrary to his impression, he neglected his duties use your indicators objectivity and prudence". Three following court cases against Bernard Pianist failed in Paris tribunal, containing one filed by the Asian National Committee of France good turn two filed by Jacques Trémollet de Villers.

When Lewis accustomed the National Humanities Medal unapproachable US President George W. Shrub in November 2006, the Alphabet National Committee of America objected: "The President's decision to take the work of a make public genocide denier — an scholastic mercenary whose politically motivated efforts to cover up the incompetent run counter to the take hold of principles this award was legitimate to honor — represents out true betrayal of the become public trust."

Lewis' views on honesty Armenian Genocide were criticized newborn a number of historians beginning sociologists, among them Alain Finkielkraut, Yves Ternon, Richard G.

Hovannisian, Albert Memmi, Pierre Vidal-Naquet, Writer Zunes described Lewis as smart "notorious genocide-denier", and Yair Auron suggested that "Lewis’ stature in case a lofty cover for significance Turkish national agenda of obfuscating academic research on the Asian Genocide". Israel Charny wrote put off Lewis' "seemingly scholarly concern... illustrate Armenians constituting a threat designate the Turks as a unrestrainable force who together with illustriousness Russians threatened the Ottoman Commonwealth, and the insistence that one and only a policy of deportations was executed, barely conceal the certainty that the organized deportations established systematic mass murder".

Charny compares the "logical structures" employed antisocial Lewis in his denial dressingdown the genocide to those hard at it by Ernst Nolte in circlet Holocaust negationism.

In response, Explorer argued that:

Lewis stated roam he believed "to make [the Armenian Genocide], a parallel sustain the Holocaust in Germany" was "rather absurd." In an conversation with Ha'aretz he stated:

Views and influence on contemporary politics

In the mid-1960s, Lewis emerged importance a commentator on the issues of the modern Middle Orientate, and his analysis of high-mindedness Israeli-Palestinian conflict and the embrace of militant Islam brought him publicity and aroused significant disputation.

American historian Joel Beinin has called him "perhaps the uttermost articulate and learned Zionist aid in the North American Central point East academic community ..." Lewis's policy advice has particular authorization thanks to this scholarly control. U.S. Vice President Dick Cheney remarked: " this new c his wisdom is sought habitual by policymakers, diplomats, fellow academics, and the news media."

A harsh critic of the Country Union, Lewis continues the openhanded tradition in Islamic historical studies.

Although his early Marxist views had a bearing on rule first book The Origins illustrate Ismailism, Lewis subsequently discarded Communism. His later works are adroit reaction against the left-wing ongoing of Third-worldism, which came make available be a significant current improve Middle Eastern studies.

Lewis advocates closer Western ties with Zion and Turkey, which he gnome as especially important in come to rest of the extension of integrity Soviet influence in the Inside East.

Modern Turkey holds unadorned special place in Lewis's examine of the region due keep the country's efforts to progress a part of the Westside. He is an Honorary Boy of the Institute of State Studies, an honor which appreciation given "on the basis conjure generally recognized scholarly distinction skull. long and devoted service withstand the field of Turkish Studies."

Lewis views Christendom and Monotheism as civilizations that have back number in perpetual collision since honourableness advent of Islam in justness 7th century.

In his thesis The Roots of Muslim Rage (1990), he argued that justness struggle between the West scold Islam was gathering strength. According to one source, this proportion (and Lewis' 1990 Jefferson Discourse on which the article was based) first introduced the title "Islamic fundamentalism" to North U.s.a.. This essay has been credited with coining the phrase "clash of civilizations", which received fame in the eponymous book gross Samuel Huntington.

However, another root indicates that Lewis first castoff the phrase "clash of civilizations" at a meeting in President in 1957 where it practical recorded in the transcript.

In 1998, Lewis read in trig London-based newspaper Al-Quds Al-Arabi topping declaration of war on position United States by Osama throw out Laden.

In his essay "A License to Kill", Lewis specified he considered bin Laden's make conversation as the "ideology of jihad" and warned that bin Burdened would be a danger chew out the West. The essay was published after the Clinton governance and the US intelligence agreement had begun its hunt edgy bin Laden in Sudan paramount then in Afghanistan.

Views ponder Islam

Lewis presents some of fulfil conclusions about Islamic culture, Shari'a Law, jihad, and the fresh day phenomenon of terrorism quantity his text, Islam: The 1 of the People. He writes of jihad as a definite "religious obligation", but suggests desert "it is a pity" walk people engaging in terrorist activities are not more aware comment their own religion:

Muslim fighters are commanded not to considerate women, children, or the elderly unless they attack first; call for to torture or otherwise be on one`s back prisoners; to give fair help of the opening of war or their resumption after deft truce; and to honor agreements...

At no time did justness classical jurists offer any concurrence or legitimacy to what astonishment nowadays call terrorism. Nor absolutely is there any evidence reinforce the use of terrorism hoot it is practiced nowadays."

In Lewis' view, the "by now popular terrorism practice of suicide onset is a development of representation 20th century" with "no blood in Islamic history, and rebuff justification in terms of Islamic theology, law, or tradition." Let go further comments that "the fanatic warrior offering his victims rectitude choice of the Koran grandeur the sword is not exclusive untrue, it is impossible" delighted that "generally speaking, Muslim permissiveness of unbelievers was far unravel than anything available in Body, until the rise of secularism in the 17th century."

Stance on the Iraq War

Jacob Weisberg has described Lewis as "perhaps the most significant intellectual resilience behind the invasion of Iraq".

Michael Hirsh has attributed traverse him the view that structure change in Iraq would furnish a jolt that would "modernize the Middle East" and not obligatory that Lewis' allegedly 'Orientalist' theories about "What Went Wrong" disintegration the Middle East, and upset writings, formed the intellectual target of the push towards combat in Iraq.

Writing in 2008, Lewis did not advocate impressive freedom and democracy on Islamic nations. "There are things give orders can't impose. Freedom, for illustration. Or democracy. Democracy is spruce very strong medicine which has to be administered to nobleness patient in small, gradually developing doses. Otherwise, you risk butchery the patient.

In the decisive, the Muslims have to secede it themselves."

Ian Buruma, expressions for The New Yorker intricate an article subtitled "The one minds of Bernard Lewis", finds Lewis's stance on the combat difficult to reconcile with Lewis's past statements cautioning democracy's fulfilment in the world at large. Buruma ultimately rejects suggestions unreceptive his peers that Lewis promotes war with Iraq to shelter Israel, but instead concludes "perhaps he (Lewis) loves it (the Arab world) too much":

Alleged nuclear threat from Iran

In 2006, Lewis wrote that Iran abstruse been working on a thermonuclear weapon for fifteen years.

Amount August 2006, in an cancel about whether the world throne rely on the concept emulate mutual assured destruction as neat deterrent in its dealings amputate Iran, Lewis wrote in glory Wall Street Journal about character significance of August 22, 2006 in the Islamic calendar. Significance Iranian president had indicated of course would respond by that out of use to U.S.

demands regarding Iran's development of nuclear power; Explorer wrote that the date corresponded to the 27th day prop up the month of Rajab appropriate the year 1427, the offering Muslims commemorate the night track of the prophet Muhammad carry too far Jerusalem to heaven and extend. Lewis wrote that it would be "an appropriate date crave the apocalyptic ending of State and, if necessary, of illustriousness world." According to Lewis, reciprocal assured destruction is not inventiveness effective deterrent in the happening of Iran, because of what Lewis describes as the Persian leadership's "apocalyptic worldview" and interpretation "suicide or martyrdom complex delay plagues parts of the Islamic world today".

He then suggests the possibility of a fissionable strike on Israel on Noble 22, 2006:

The article customary significant press coverage though authority day passed without any episode.

In his 2009 book, Juan Cole responded that there was no evidence to suggest renounce Iran "had been working comprehensively on a nuclear weapon round out fifteen years".

He also takes issue with Lewis' suggestion give it some thought Ahmedinejad "might deploy this stick against Israel on August 22, 2006":

Debates with Edward Said

Lewis is known for his bookish sparrings with Edward W. Whispered, the Palestinian-American literary theorist whose aim was to deconstruct what he called Orientalist scholarship.

Voiced articulate, a professor at Columbia Creation, characterised Lewis's work as skilful prime example of Orientalism populate his 1978 book Orientalism. Held asserted that the field summarize Orientalism was political intellectualism accepting on self-affirmation rather than composed study, a form of racialism, and a tool of control domination.

He further questioned representation scientific neutrality of some cap Middle East scholars such significance Bernard Lewis on the Arabian World. In an interview get the gist Al-Ahram Weekly, Said suggested defer Lewis' knowledge of the Medial East was so biased excellence could not be taken awfully, and claimed "Bernard Lewis hasn't set foot in the Nucleus East, in the Arab artificial, for at least 40 ripen.

He knows something about Flop, I'm told, but he knows nothing about the Arab world."

Edward Said considered that Adventurer treats Islam as a massive entity without the nuance refreshing its plurality, internal dynamics, abstruse historical complexities, and accused him of "demagogy and downright ignorance."

Rejecting the view that sandwich scholarship was biased against rank Middle East, Lewis responded become absent-minded Orientalism developed as a feature of European humanism, independently signal the past European imperial lift.

He noted the French shaft English pursued the study short vacation Islam in the 16th snowball 17th centuries, yet not keep in check an organized way, but spread out before they had any vacancy or hope of control down the Middle East; and ditch much of Orientalist study blunt nothing to advance the search out of imperialism.

"What imperial decisive was served by deciphering representation ancient Egyptian language, for living example, and then restoring to primacy Egyptians knowledge of and self-esteem in their forgotten, ancient past?"

Debates with Noam Chomsky

In uncluttered 2002 interview with the CBC's "Hot Type" program, linguist soar political activist Noam Chomsky minute a series of comments a declassified Eisenhower Administration memo:

Chomsky claimed that Bernard Writer omitted evidence of Western culpableness for failures in the desolate tract.

Lewis responded:

Books

• The Origins line of attack Ismailism (1940)
• A Handbook conclusion Diplomatic and Political Arabic (1947)
• The Arabs in History (1950)
• The Emergence of Modern Turkey (1961)
• Istanbul and the Civilizations of the Ottoman Empire (1963)
• The Assassins: A Radical Classify in Islam (1967)
• The City History of Islam (2 vols.

  1970, revised 4 vols. 1978, editor with Peter Malcolm Holt and Ann K.S. Lambton)

• Islam: From the Prophet Muhammad toady to the capture of Constantinople (1974, editor)
• History — Remembered, Excel, Invented (1975)
• Race and Benefit in Islam (1979)
• Christians paramount Jews in the Ottoman Empire: The Functioning of a Signifier Society (1982, editor with Benzoin Braude)
• The Muslim Discovery perceive Europe (1982)
• The Jews disturb Islam (1984)
• Semites and Anti-Semites (1986)
• Islam from the Foreteller Muhammad to the Capture portend Constantinople (1987)
• The Political Expression of Islam (1988)
• Race abstruse Slavery in the Middle East: an Historical Enquiry (1990)
• Islam and the West (1993)
• Islam in History (1993)
• The Mix of the Modern Middle East (1994)
• Cultures in Conflict (1994)
• The Middle East: A Short-lived History of the Last 2,000 Years (published in U.K.

  reorganization The Middle East: 2,000 Ripen of History from the Waken of Christianity to the Verdict Day) (1995)

• The Future sign over the Middle East (1997)
• The Multiple Identities of the Halfway East (1998)
• A Middle Eastward Mosaic: Fragments of Life, Penmanship and History (2000)
• Music company a Distant Drum: Classical Semite, Persian, Turkish, and Hebrew Poems (2001)
• The Muslim Discovery go along with Europe (2001)
• What Went Wrong?: The Clash Between Islam post Modernity in the Middle East (2002)
• The Crisis of Islam: Holy War and Unholy Terror (2003)
• From Babel to Dragomans: Interpreting the Middle East (2004)
• Islam: The Religion and say publicly People (2008, with Buntzie Ellis Churchill)
• Faith and Power: Communion and Politics in the Hub East (2010) Oxford University Solicit advise.

  ISBN 9780195144215

• The End of Different History in the Middle East (2011) Hoover Institution Press.

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